9.2.09
Some Important Links
http://www.chumlung.org.np/
http://www.chumlungusa.org/
http://www.limbulibrary.com.np/
http://www.kirats.com/
http://www.kiratisaathi.com/
http://www.tigela.com.np/
http://www.kirat.org.np/
http://www.nefin.org.np/
http://www.ingnam.org/
http://www.yakthungsamaj.com/
http://www.yakthungnews.com/
http://www.sahitya.com.np/
http://www.datingnepal.com/
http://www.realdomainhost.com/
http://www.realhostingsale.com/
http://www.realdomainsale.com/
http://www.nepaleseliterature.com/
7.2.09
About Kirat
Kirat
Kirat refers to the Kirati group or a Kirata confederation that includes the Limbu, Rai, Yakkha and Sunuwar ethnic groups of Nepal. They were the earliest inhabitants of Nepal. Dhimal, Hayu, Koch, Thami, Chaudary Chepang, and Surel ethnic groups also consider themselves to be of Kirati descent.
Writers B. Mayhew, L. Brown, W. Vivequin, and H. Finlay write, "Recorded history begins with the Kiratis, who were Hindu and worshipped Shiva."
Writers B. Mayhew, L. Brown, W. Vivequin, and H. Finlay write, "Recorded history begins with the Kiratis, who were Hindu and worshipped Shiva."
Etymology
The word Kirat or Kirati's source is much disputed. Example of one such school of thought say that it is from the Sanskrit word Kirata found in the Yajur Veda describing the "handsome" mountain people and hunters in the forests. They are also described in the Mahabharata, Kirtarjuniya.
Language
Kirat Languages fall under two category. 1. Under Bhot-Burmeli Tibeto-Burman category which include Kagate, Kusunda, Kham, Chepang, Chhantyal, Jirel, Tamu (Gurung), Tamang, Thakali, Thami, Dura, Dhimal, Newar, Pahari, Magar, Meche, Yakkha, Rai, Raute, Rang, Raji, Limbu, Lepcha, Loba, Sunuwar, Surel, Sherpa, Hayu, Hyolmo, Hyambu Shyarba 2. Under Bharopeli Indo-European category which include Kumhale, Koche, Tharu, Danuwar, Darai, Bote and Majhi.
Religion
The Kirat follow Kirat Mundhum. Their holy book is the Mundhum also known as the Kirat Veda. Kirat Rai people worship Nature and ancestors, Animism and Shamanism, believing in a their primeval ancestors, SumnimaParuhang. Some names for festivals they celebrate include Sakela, Sakle, Toshi, Sakewa, Saleladi Bhunmidev, Chyabrung, Yokwa and Folsyandar. They have two main festivals: Sakela/Sakewa Uvauli, during plantation season; and Sakela/Sakewa Udhauli, in the time of the harvest.
Kirat Limbu people believe in Supreme God Tagera Ningwaphuma, who is also known as the supreme knowledge . Ancestor Yuma Sammang and God of War Theba Sammang are second most important deities.
Many of the Kirat that were outside of Hinduism did convert by the ruling elites of later days Nepal
There is a giant Linga of the Kirat at Kirataeshvara. It possibly had a Kirat name but all such evidence was destroyed by the next rulers of Nepal.
There is a tradition amongst the Kirat Limbus there the reclining Vishnu found at Budhanilakantha is the ancestor of the Limbus. Many of them don't know cause Brahmin or Chetri people who live in Kathmandu won't let them to pray budhanilkantha. There are mainly three Budhanilkantha and noone knows which one is original.
Kirat Limbu people believe in Supreme God Tagera Ningwaphuma, who is also known as the supreme knowledge . Ancestor Yuma Sammang and God of War Theba Sammang are second most important deities.
Many of the Kirat that were outside of Hinduism did convert by the ruling elites of later days Nepal
There is a giant Linga of the Kirat at Kirataeshvara. It possibly had a Kirat name but all such evidence was destroyed by the next rulers of Nepal.
There is a tradition amongst the Kirat Limbus there the reclining Vishnu found at Budhanilakantha is the ancestor of the Limbus. Many of them don't know cause Brahmin or Chetri people who live in Kathmandu won't let them to pray budhanilkantha. There are mainly three Budhanilkantha and noone knows which one is original.
History
Mentioned as Kiratas in Mahabharat epic
The Kiratas (Sanskrit) mentioned in early Hindu texts are the tribals of the forest and mountains. They are mentioned along with Cinas (Chinese). Kirati languages belong to Tibeto-Burman family of Languages . Kiratas have been identified as the present day Rai, Limbu and Sunuwar of Nepal.
In Yoga Vasistha 1.15.5 Rama speaks of "kirAteneva vAgurA", "a trap (laid) by Kiratas", so about BCE Xth Century, they were thought of as jungle trappers, the ones who dug pits to capture roving deer. The same text also speaks of King Suraghu, the head of the Kiratas who is a friend of the Persian King, Parigha.
Hindu myth has many incidents where their God Shiva has imitated a Kirat person.
History of Kirats describes some of the achievements of Kirata people in eastern Nepal.
In Yoga Vasistha 1.15.5 Rama speaks of "kirAteneva vAgurA", "a trap (laid) by Kiratas", so about BCE Xth Century, they were thought of as jungle trappers, the ones who dug pits to capture roving deer. The same text also speaks of King Suraghu, the head of the Kiratas who is a friend of the Persian King, Parigha.
Hindu myth has many incidents where their God Shiva has imitated a Kirat person.
History of Kirats describes some of the achievements of Kirata people in eastern Nepal.
Backgrounds
Historians today are convinced that a widespread cultural conflict took place in the eastern Himalayan region between the indigenous inhabitants – called the Kirat – and the Tibetan migrant population, reaching a climax during the 18th and 19th centuries. Another wave of political and cultural conflict, between Gorkhali and Kirat ideals, surfaced in the Kirat region of present-day Nepal during the last quarter of the 18th century. A collection of manuscripts from the 18th and 19th centuries, till now unpublished and unstudied by historians, have made possible a new understanding of this conflict. These historical sources are among those collected by Brian Houghton Hodgson – a British diplomat and self-trained Orientalist appointed to the Kathmandu court during the second quarter of the 19th century – and his principal research aide, the Newar scholar Khardar Jitmohan.
For over two millennia, a large portion of the eastern Himalaya has been identified as the home of the Kirat people, of which the majority are known today as Rai, Limbu, Yakha and Lepcha. In ancient times, the entire Himalayan region was known as the kimpurusha desha, a phrase derived from a Sanskrit term used to identify people of Kirat origin. These people were also known as nep, to which the name nepala is believed to have an etymological link. The earliest references to the Kirat as principal inhabitants of the Himalayan region are found in the texts of Atharvashirsha and Mahabharata, believed to date to before the 9th century BC. For over a millennium, the Kirat had also inhabited the Kathmandu Valley, where they installed their own ruling dynasty.This Kirat population in the valley, along with original Australoids and Austro-Asiatic speakers form the base for later Newar population. As time passed, however, those Kirat, now known as the Limbu settled mostly in the Koshi region of present-day eastern Nepal and Sikkim.
From around the 8th century, areas on the northern frontier of the Kirat region began to fall under the domination of migrant people of Tibetan origin. This flux of migration brought about the domination by Tibetan religious and cultural practices over ancient Kirat traditions. This influence first imposed shamanistic Bön practices, which in turn were later replaced by the oldest form of Tibetan Buddhism. The early influx of Bön culture to the peripheral Himalayan regions occurred only after the advent of the Nyingma, the oldest Buddhist order in Lhasa and Central Tibet, which led followers of the older religion to flee to the Kirat areas for survival. The Tibetan cultural influx ultimately laid the foundation for a Tibetan politico-religious order in the Kirat regions, and this led to the emergence of two major Tibetan Buddhist dynasties: in Sikkim and Bhutan. The early political order of the Kingdom of Bhutan had been established under the political and spiritual leadership of the lama Zhabs-drung Ngawang Namgyal. Consequently, Bhutan used to be known in the Himalayan region as the ‘kingdom of [Buddhist] spiritual rule’ (in old Nepali, dharmaako desh). The Tibetan rulers of Sikkim were also known as Chögyal, or spiritual rulers.
Both of these kingdoms adopted policies of suppression of indigenous practices, replacing them with those of Tibetan Buddhism. Bhutan's religious rulers established a tradition of appointing religious missions to other Himalayan kingdoms and areas, through which they were able to establish extensive influence in the region. Bhutan's ambitious missions were sent as far west as Ladakh. Even before the founding of modern Nepal by Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha in 1769, Bhutan's rulers were able to establish spiritual centres in several parts of what was to become the former's territories, including Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Gorkha and Vijayapur in the midhills, and Mustang, north of the central Himalayan range.
Sikkim had long been home to Lepcha Kirat people and culture. Under the guidance of Tibetan Buddhist lamas, however, their self-rule and cultural independence was suddenly taken away. Sikkim kings were even able to subdue the entire far-eastern part of the Kirat region – historically known as Limbuwan – for at least a short period of time. Here, the new rulers adopted policies of religious and cultural subjugation, encouraging Sikkim lamas to travel to places of strategic importance in order to establish monastic centres. But the indigenous population did not easily surrender themselves to this cultural invasion. Limbu and Lepcha manuscripts collected by Brian Houghton Hodgson in Darjeeling indicate significant resistance by the Kirat against Tibetan Buddhist rule and cultural domination. While much of this struggle consisted of attempts to strengthen cultural awareness, there were also violent engagements between Kirat communities and their new rulers.
For over two millennia, a large portion of the eastern Himalaya has been identified as the home of the Kirat people, of which the majority are known today as Rai, Limbu, Yakha and Lepcha. In ancient times, the entire Himalayan region was known as the kimpurusha desha, a phrase derived from a Sanskrit term used to identify people of Kirat origin. These people were also known as nep, to which the name nepala is believed to have an etymological link. The earliest references to the Kirat as principal inhabitants of the Himalayan region are found in the texts of Atharvashirsha and Mahabharata, believed to date to before the 9th century BC. For over a millennium, the Kirat had also inhabited the Kathmandu Valley, where they installed their own ruling dynasty.This Kirat population in the valley, along with original Australoids and Austro-Asiatic speakers form the base for later Newar population. As time passed, however, those Kirat, now known as the Limbu settled mostly in the Koshi region of present-day eastern Nepal and Sikkim.
From around the 8th century, areas on the northern frontier of the Kirat region began to fall under the domination of migrant people of Tibetan origin. This flux of migration brought about the domination by Tibetan religious and cultural practices over ancient Kirat traditions. This influence first imposed shamanistic Bön practices, which in turn were later replaced by the oldest form of Tibetan Buddhism. The early influx of Bön culture to the peripheral Himalayan regions occurred only after the advent of the Nyingma, the oldest Buddhist order in Lhasa and Central Tibet, which led followers of the older religion to flee to the Kirat areas for survival. The Tibetan cultural influx ultimately laid the foundation for a Tibetan politico-religious order in the Kirat regions, and this led to the emergence of two major Tibetan Buddhist dynasties: in Sikkim and Bhutan. The early political order of the Kingdom of Bhutan had been established under the political and spiritual leadership of the lama Zhabs-drung Ngawang Namgyal. Consequently, Bhutan used to be known in the Himalayan region as the ‘kingdom of [Buddhist] spiritual rule’ (in old Nepali, dharmaako desh). The Tibetan rulers of Sikkim were also known as Chögyal, or spiritual rulers.
Both of these kingdoms adopted policies of suppression of indigenous practices, replacing them with those of Tibetan Buddhism. Bhutan's religious rulers established a tradition of appointing religious missions to other Himalayan kingdoms and areas, through which they were able to establish extensive influence in the region. Bhutan's ambitious missions were sent as far west as Ladakh. Even before the founding of modern Nepal by Prithvi Narayan Shah of Gorkha in 1769, Bhutan's rulers were able to establish spiritual centres in several parts of what was to become the former's territories, including Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Gorkha and Vijayapur in the midhills, and Mustang, north of the central Himalayan range.
Sikkim had long been home to Lepcha Kirat people and culture. Under the guidance of Tibetan Buddhist lamas, however, their self-rule and cultural independence was suddenly taken away. Sikkim kings were even able to subdue the entire far-eastern part of the Kirat region – historically known as Limbuwan – for at least a short period of time. Here, the new rulers adopted policies of religious and cultural subjugation, encouraging Sikkim lamas to travel to places of strategic importance in order to establish monastic centres. But the indigenous population did not easily surrender themselves to this cultural invasion. Limbu and Lepcha manuscripts collected by Brian Houghton Hodgson in Darjeeling indicate significant resistance by the Kirat against Tibetan Buddhist rule and cultural domination. While much of this struggle consisted of attempts to strengthen cultural awareness, there were also violent engagements between Kirat communities and their new rulers.
Sirjanga Singthebe and Kirat revival
Limbu society's first known literary figure and reformer was a talented young man from Tellok, in present-day Taplejung District of far-eastern Nepal. Born around 1704, he was formally known as Sirichongba, but his more popular name was and remains Sirijanga. A Limbu-language instruction book found in the collection reveals Sirijanga's real name: Rupihaang. The haang part of the name is a common Kirat term indicating a family of high or royal origin. Sirijanga had accepted his Lepcha nickname by claiming to be the incarnation of a legendary figure also called Sirijanga. It has been widely believed that it was this supposedly 9th century hero who preserved and revived the ancient Kirat script; but many now feel that the Sirijanga legend was most likely created by the 18th century Sirijanga himself, with the intention of making the Limbu and Lepcha people more ready to believe and follow his teachings. Sirijanga Singthebe revived the old Kirat script, today mistakenly known as Sirijanga. With the use of his newly revived script he collected, composed and copied huge amounts of Kirat literature pertaining to history and cultural traditions. He traveled extensively through remote regions, attempting to amass sources of Limbu knowledge and culture. Eventually, he began going from village to village, publicising his findings and establishing centres of Kirati learning. In doing all of this, Sirijanga laid the foundation for a Kirat ethnic revival, and contributed significantly to the resistance against Tibetan Buddhist cultural domination. Sirijanga preached that acquiring broad cultural knowledge and experience was the key to the revival and enrichment of a community. In an attempt to trace the sources of his culture, he at first studied with local Tibetan Buddhist lamas, who at the time were the only means in the region of connecting to a learned tradition. Sirijanga was also witness to the influx of the Hindu-based Khas culture from the western hill districts of today's Nepal. As such, along with his preliminary studies under the local lamas, he also practiced reading and writing in contemporary Khas, now known as Nepali. In order to better understand the dynamics at play in the region and to gather support for his movement, Sirijanga traveled far and wide to establish contact with rulers and powerful personalities. In one of these adventures, it seems that he had either contacted or met King Jayaprakash Malla of Kathmandu. This multi-lingual and multi-cultural exposure to Buddhist and Hindu standards enabled Sirijanga to grasp the fundamentals of both of the region's dominant cultures. During Sirijanga's life, the Bhutani and Sikkimi quest for greater control over the eastern Himalaya led to many wars between Limbu and Sikkimi Bhotiya (Bhotiya indicating Tibetan origin) authorities. In due time, the lamas of Sikkim were able to extend their monastic centres into the northern areas of that part of Limbuwan that now lies in Nepal. After a time, this cultural encroachment enabled the Bhotiya rulers to repeatedly subdue and take control of the entire Kirat territory.
The root of this state of conflict can be seen to lie in the politics of culture and knowledge at play in the region. Sikkimi Tibetan rulers and Buddhist spiritual leaders were able to subjugate the entire far-eastern Kirat region by means of their hold over the established learned traditions and the systematic spiritual culture of Buddhism. It was realisation of this that led Sirijanga to emphasise the necessity of a peaceful, knowledge-based movement. In present-day terms, Sirijanga's ethnic movement can be said to be one of Kirat empowerment through education. Sirijanga's movement came to represent a significant threat in particular to the Sikkimi Bhotiya rulers and their spiritual gurus. The man's writings and teachings, his Kirati alphabet and the literary texts he collected, attracted significant numbers of Limbus and Lepchas, and led to the start of an ethnic awakening. Sirijanga was able to establish centres of Kirat cultural and religious learning in many places throughout the eastern Himalayan hills. The Sikkimi authorities felt enough under threat to want Sirijanga eliminated. He was killed in 1741, somewhere near the Pemiyongchi Monastery in Sikkim. The Kirat learning centres were subsequently destroyed, and Sirijanga's disciples murdered or brutally suppressed.
The root of this state of conflict can be seen to lie in the politics of culture and knowledge at play in the region. Sikkimi Tibetan rulers and Buddhist spiritual leaders were able to subjugate the entire far-eastern Kirat region by means of their hold over the established learned traditions and the systematic spiritual culture of Buddhism. It was realisation of this that led Sirijanga to emphasise the necessity of a peaceful, knowledge-based movement. In present-day terms, Sirijanga's ethnic movement can be said to be one of Kirat empowerment through education. Sirijanga's movement came to represent a significant threat in particular to the Sikkimi Bhotiya rulers and their spiritual gurus. The man's writings and teachings, his Kirati alphabet and the literary texts he collected, attracted significant numbers of Limbus and Lepchas, and led to the start of an ethnic awakening. Sirijanga was able to establish centres of Kirat cultural and religious learning in many places throughout the eastern Himalayan hills. The Sikkimi authorities felt enough under threat to want Sirijanga eliminated. He was killed in 1741, somewhere near the Pemiyongchi Monastery in Sikkim. The Kirat learning centres were subsequently destroyed, and Sirijanga's disciples murdered or brutally suppressed.
Gorkhali hegemonies
The next phase of military and cultural threat faced by the Kirat people was at the hands of the Gorkhali expansionists of Nepal, shortly after Sirijanga's death. The nature and intensity of this hegemony was to prove significantly different from that of the earlier Tibetan one, however. From the very beginning, the Gorkha court's intention in the region was not the extension of its Hindu-based culture. Rather, Gorkha's was a clear military campaign of territorial expansion.
After the completion of the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley in 1769, the Gorkhali army marched east towards the Kirat territory. The Sen rulers of eastern Nepal, known as Hindupati, had established a weak rule in the Kirat region by adopting a policy of mutual understanding with the local Kirat leaders. The Gorkhali military campaign, in contrast, brought with it a forceful and brutal occupation. During the conquest, the invading authorities adopted a harsh divide-and-rule policy: they first asked the Kiratis to surrender, assuring them that they would retain local rule and their traditional order. After many took up this offer, however, the conquerors instead demanded that Gorkhali rule be obeyed and Gorkhali traditions be followed. Manuscripts in Hodgson's collection make mention of Kirat men, male children and pregnant women having been murdered in great numbers. The Gorkhalis ultimately divided the Kiratis into two groups, the sampriti and the niti: the former were those who had surrendered to Gorkhali power and cultural traditions, while the latter maintained their own traditions. The Gorkhali authorities naturally favoured the sampritis, killing the nitis or forcing them to flee their lands. As a result, much of the niti population migrated towards Sikkim and Bhutan. But Gorkhali wartime policy changed, particularly after the conquest of the territories of Kumaun and Garhwal far in the west. By the end of the 18th century, the authorities in Kathmandu were in need of more state revenue, and implemented a policy to bring people into Nepali territory in order to make barren land arable. The Kirat who were ousted from their lands during the Gorkhali military conquest were also asked to return home, albeit under the condition that Gorkhali rule and traditions were strictly followed. Relatives and friends of those who had fled were recruited to call them back, and people moved again between the state-given identities of niti and sampriti.
After the completion of the conquest of the Kathmandu Valley in 1769, the Gorkhali army marched east towards the Kirat territory. The Sen rulers of eastern Nepal, known as Hindupati, had established a weak rule in the Kirat region by adopting a policy of mutual understanding with the local Kirat leaders. The Gorkhali military campaign, in contrast, brought with it a forceful and brutal occupation. During the conquest, the invading authorities adopted a harsh divide-and-rule policy: they first asked the Kiratis to surrender, assuring them that they would retain local rule and their traditional order. After many took up this offer, however, the conquerors instead demanded that Gorkhali rule be obeyed and Gorkhali traditions be followed. Manuscripts in Hodgson's collection make mention of Kirat men, male children and pregnant women having been murdered in great numbers. The Gorkhalis ultimately divided the Kiratis into two groups, the sampriti and the niti: the former were those who had surrendered to Gorkhali power and cultural traditions, while the latter maintained their own traditions. The Gorkhali authorities naturally favoured the sampritis, killing the nitis or forcing them to flee their lands. As a result, much of the niti population migrated towards Sikkim and Bhutan. But Gorkhali wartime policy changed, particularly after the conquest of the territories of Kumaun and Garhwal far in the west. By the end of the 18th century, the authorities in Kathmandu were in need of more state revenue, and implemented a policy to bring people into Nepali territory in order to make barren land arable. The Kirat who were ousted from their lands during the Gorkhali military conquest were also asked to return home, albeit under the condition that Gorkhali rule and traditions were strictly followed. Relatives and friends of those who had fled were recruited to call them back, and people moved again between the state-given identities of niti and sampriti.
6.2.09
Limbuwan, Nepal
Introduction
There is a proposal for 8 autonomous states in the new federal republic, but there is another proposal for 15 states with names based not on ethnicity, but rather on geographical terms. The proposals are still open to discussion and in the meantime several autonomous councils had been formed claiming the status of an autonomous republics for various ethnic groups in Nepal. Chrystian Kretowicz, 28 April 2008
There is a proposal for 8 autonomous states in the new federal republic, but there is another proposal for 15 states with names based not on ethnicity, but rather on geographical terms. The proposals are still open to discussion and in the meantime several autonomous councils had been formed claiming the status of an autonomous republics for various ethnic groups in Nepal. Chrystian Kretowicz, 28 April 2008
About Limbuwan
One of the proposed states is Limbuwan. Limbu people live in eastern Nepal on the border with Sikkim. Their language, Kiranti, is of Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan family. Limbu means "archer". They number @ 400,000 in Nepal and live also in Sikkim, Bhutan and West Bengal. The flag of the Federal Limbuwan State Council is presented above.Relevant links at:http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-787778225312155289 (first image after titles)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limbuwan_Autonomy
Limbu
The word limbu means an archer, or bearer of bow and arrows. The Limbu people belong to the Kirant confederation. Their ancestral and original stronghold known as Pallo Kirat as well as Limbuwan spans from Arun River in Nepal to the Kingdom of Sikkim in the east. In Nepal, Limbus live and work in the districts of Sankhuwasabha, Tehrathum, Dhankuta, Taplejung, Panchthar and Ilam. Their scripture is called Mundhum. Fedangba, Shamba and Yeba-Yema are their sacred specialists. They celebrate the dance festivals of Kelang popularly known Chyabrung (two-sided drum) and Yarak (Paddy dance) as major events. Limbus have their own script called Sirijunga. There are many books written in the Limbu language. Their faith is enshrined in the evergreen Cynodondactylon (dubo) grass and rocks. They cremate their dead. The population of the Limbus, according to the census of 2001, is 359,255.
The Limbu ethnic group is considered a branch of the ancient Kirat community. They are the indigenous people of the land area comprising east of the river Arun extending to Sikkim and to the northern part of West Bengal. The area inhabited by Limbus was called Pallo Kirat in the early times and was called Limbuwan until recently. At the time of Prithvi Narayan Shah's invasion of the Limbuwan, there were ten different states ruled by 10 Limbu kings. It is said that the Limbus of today are the descendants of these 10 Limbus (Vansittart, 1991:107). The main areas inhabited by Limbus today are the districts of Sankhuwasabha, Taplejung, Terahthum, Panchthar, Dhankuta and Ilam. They are now also found living in large numbers in Sunsari, Jhapa and Morang districts.
The term, ‘Limbu', in Limbu language means ‘one who carries bow' or 'bow carrier' (Chemjong, AD1948:33). Limbus are also called Yakthung. According to the population census of 2001, the population of Limbus is 359,379. Limbus have their own language, which is called 'Yakthungpan'. They also have their own ageold script. The script is called Kirat Sirjanga. A number of books have been published in the Limbu language.
Limbus have their own distinct culture. Kelang (chyabhrung dance or drum dance), Yalang (dhan nach, or paddy dance) and Yemalang (bijwani dance, or female shaman's dance) are some of the Limbu dances. They also have their own unique songs called hakpare, palam, etc. They have their own religion called Kirat Dharma, often known as Yuma Samyo. They are basically worshippers of nature or animists (Subba, BS2058). Mundhum is their holy scripture. Tagera Niwa Phuma or Yuma is the prominent goddess and there are several other gods and goddesses. Among them Nahangma is the goddess of the primitive war--a culture in which Limbus take pride (Sagant, 1996). Phedangma, Samba, Yeba, Yema and Angsi are the sacred specialists who perform religious functions and lifecycle rituals. Limbus bring in people of other tribes and communities to their dynastic lineage by completing a special formality called chokphung or socialization (Chemjong, 1966:70-74). Limbus have deep allegiance towards a sacred grass cynodon dactylon and stone and witnesses involved in the process of adjudication according to Limbu practices are cross-examined by asking them to take oath by touching dubo (cynodon dactylon) and stone (Subba, 1998:42). Limbus, traditionally, bury their dead and mourning is observed for four days for male and three days for female. Attendance of close relatives is compulsory on the final day of mourning for cleaning up of the death-related pollution.
Limbus, in general, marry within their own community. Boys are at liberty to choose a girl and girls are equally free to decide whether to spend life with the boy in question or not (Jones and Jones, 1976). Cross-cousin marriage is not allowed in Limbu culture. Marriage between a man and the widow of his elder brother can take place if they mutually agree. Marriage between a man and a woman outside family relations and having different thars (clans) is also possible either by arrangement or by mutual consent of the boy and the girl in question. It is conventionally said that the customs and traditions of Limbus were established in the distant past by Sawa Yethang (council of eight kings/leaders).
Limbus are primarily dependent on agriculture. The system of land ownership and autonomous administration practised for several centuries was called Kipat, which was abolished after the enforcement of the Land Reform Act in the Limbuwan area. As a consequence, many of them found themselves deprived of their land. In old days the society of Limbus used to be guided by Tumyahang (gentlemen) and managed by Chumlung (Assembly of Gentlemen). The system, however, has now become a matter of history. The male Limbus are very skillful in farming and in making the required tools for the same, in hunting and in framing goods of wood and bamboo whereas the females are good at weaving, doing work of domestic skills and gardening. Men and women in Limbu society are considered equal and sons have claim in their fathers' property whereas daughters are entitled to inherit mothers' property. Land is in the possession of sons and the daughters own domestic animals and cash in the form of pewa.
The Kirat Period
The Kirats
The Kirats were the aborigines of north-eastern Himalayas. According to Baburam Acharya, they came to Nepal in about 700 B.C. and ruled over it. They were short and had robust bodies, broad checks, flat noses, thin whiskers, and dark eyes. They were well trained in the art of warfare, and were very skillful archers. They were the ancestors of the present day Kiratas: - Kulung, Thulung and Yellung. Yalamber, the first Kirati king of Nepal belonged to the Yellung clan.
Altogether, there were 29 kings of this dynasty who ruled over Nepal for about 1225 years. According to the chronicle (Bamsavali) of Kirkpatrick, Kiratas ruled over Nepal from about 900 B.C. to 300 A.D. On the basis of the Puranas and other ancient religious texts, it is presumed that the Kiratas ruled in Nepal after Gopal and Mahipal. The first king of the Kiratas was Yalamber, who defeated Bhuvan Singh, the last king of Ahir dynasty and established Kirat rule in Nepal. He extended his kingdom as far as the Tista river in the east and the Trishuli in the west. It is said that during the battle of Mahabharata, Yalamber went to witness the battle with a view to take the side of the loosing party. Lord Krishna, knowing the intention of Yalamber and the strength and unity of the Kiratas, thought that the war would unnecessarily be prolonged if Yalamber sided with the Kauravas. So, by a clever stroke of diplomacy, Lord Krishna cut off Yalamber's head.
The Kirat Kings
The 29 Kirat kings were as follows :
1. Yalamber 2. Pavi 3. Skandhar 4. Balamba, 5. Hriti, 6. Humati, 7. Jitedasti, 8. Galinja, 9. Pushka, 10. Suyarma, 11. Papa, 12. Bunka, 13. Swananda, 14. Sthunko, 15. Jinghri, 16. Nane, 17. Luka, 18. Thor, 19. Thoko, 20. Verma, 21. Guja, 22. Pushkar, 23. Keshu, 24. Suja, 25. Sansa, 26. Gunam 27. Khimbu, 28. Patuka, 29. Gasti.
During the region of 7th Kirati King Jitedasti, Gautama Buddha visited the Nepal Valley along with his disciples. He visited the shrines of Swayambhu and Guheswari and preached his doctrine. There are also references to the fact that Jitedasti fought in the battle of Mahabharata from the Pandava's side.
During the rule of Sthunko, the 14th king of the dynasty, about 250 B.C. the Indian Emperor Asoka came on a pilgrimage to Lumbini, in Nepal. To mark the birthplace of Gautama Buddha, Asoka got inscriptions engraved on rocks and set up a stone-pillar. In about 640 A.D., Hieun Tseng, a Chinsese traveller, visited this place. He has described that the stone-pillar was cracked due to thunder. The stone-pillar of Asoka was unknown until 1st December 1985 A.D. when Dr. Fuhrer engraved it. (Now His Majesty's Government of Nepal has set up a plan, 'Lumbini Development Project', to preserve this antiquity.) He also visited different parts of Nepal valley along with his daughter Charumati. To commemorate the visit, he got four stupas erected in four quarters and one in the central part of Lalitpattan, the modern Patan. They exist even to this day. Asoka's visit to Kathmandu is testified by the fact that he gave his daughter Charumati in marriage to Devapal, a Kshetriya Prince. She settled near Pashupati and founded a town called 'Devpatan' in memory of her husband Devapal. She also got a Vihar (nunnery) erected for herself which was called Charumati Vihar. The nunnery and its surroundings are now known as Chabahil. In this way, after the visit of Asoka, Buddhism flourished in the Nepal valley. Jainsim, another religious cult, contemporary of Buddhism, was founded by Mahavir Jain in India. Several disciples of Mahavir Jain preached the doctrines of Jainism in various parts of India. It is said that during the regin of Jinghri, the 15th Kirata king, one of the disciples of Mahavir Jain named Bhadrabahu entered Nepal in about 300 B.C. But his visit to Nepal was society and Buddhism was just being introduced. So, the Nepalese did not accept Jainism.
During the regime of Patuka, the 28th Kirati king, the Soma dynasty kings attacked Nepal several times. Patuka had to leave Gokarna because of the repeated attacks of the Soma dynasty kings from the west. So, he settled in Shankhamul and made it a beautiful town. there he built a palace which was known as the 'Patuko Palace'. Though nothing but a mound of the palace in ruins now exists, the place is still called Patuko. The last Kirati king was Gasti, who was defeated by Nimisha of the Soma dynasty and the Kirati rule came to an end. Thus, Nimisha became the first king of Soma dynasty.
Civilization And Culture Of Kiratas
During the rule of the Kiratas, Nepal made considerable progress in the field of art and architecture, trade and commerce. The Kiratis were not only good warriors but also good administrators. Men and women were treated equally. Criminals were given severe punishment. For the administration of justice, law-courts were established at several places-Kuther, Shuli, Lingual, Mapchok, etc.
Trade and commerce flourished under the Kiratas. Nepal had trade relations with Tibet, China and India. The exports of Nepal mainly consisted of wool, woollen goods, wood and herbs. Kautilya, in his 'Arthasastra', says that Nepali wollen blankets were very popular in the market of Magadha (Bihar in modern India). People took more interest in business than in agriculture. Because of its economic prosperity, people from different places, of different tribes and races came to Nepal and settled down. Thus, the people having different customs and practices all merged into a nation. This resulted in the development of a new culture of its own.
The cultural and religious life of the people was highly developed under the Kiratas, The main religion of the Kiratas was Hinduism. they worshipped Lord Shiva, serpents, trees, stones etc. The images of Kiratewar Mahadev and Birupakshya show the standard of architecture of the Kiratas. Buddhism also flourished under the Kiratas. The stupas, pagodas, and temples were all built on the model of Buddhist art.
The Kiratas developed a number of towns. The thickly populated centres were Malatirtha, Shankhamul, Thankot, Khopung (Bhaktapur), Khopase, Sanga, Teku, etc. Nepal exchanged its culture and civilization with India, Tibet and China. The introduced of Buddhism brought intellectual awakening among the people. In this way, the foundation of the vast structure of the Nepalese culture was laid down under the Kiratas. Indeed, this period can be regarded as the foreunner of the future development of the Nepalese society in all aspects.
Soma Dynasty Kings
The Soma dynasty had established a principality in the west while the Kirati kings were ruling over the Nepal valley. The Soma dynasty kings attacked Nepal several times during the region of Patuka, but they could not defeat him. The last Kirati King Gasti was comparatively weak, so he was defeated by Nimisha of the Soma dynasty. Thus, Nimisha became the first Soma dynasty king of Nepal in about 205 A.D. He built his palace in Godavari. It was from his time that the Godavari-Mela (fair) began to be held at Godavari, every twelve years. He also erected the four faced linga of Pashupatinath. He repaired the temple of Pashupatinath as well.
After Nimisha, Mitakshya, Kakaverma and Pashuprekshya Dev ruled over Nepal. Bhaskerverma was the fifth and last Soma dynasty king who ruled over Nepal during 280 to 305 A.D. It was he who led a military expedition and reached up to Rameswaram, the southern-most part of India. He gathered a vast treasure of wealth from this campaign. With this wealth he made a gold-plating roof on the temple of Pashupatinath and developed the economic condition of his kingdom. He filled Devapatan with his wealth and named it 'Swarnapuri'. He was childless, so he made Bhumi Verma, his heir, who was a Rajput Keshetriya of the Solar dynasty. Thus, the soma dynasty rule came to an end.
5.2.09
Now Chumlung in Limbuwan with Cultural Programs
On 23 rd Oct, Limbuwan Nepal
Kirat Yakthung Chumlung, a social and common organization of Limbu ethnic peoples', is organizing cultural programs at the different places of Limbuwan Nepal.
A sub committee for People Awakening Expedition is managing for these cultural programs in different places of Limbuwan. Main Central body of Chumlung is leading the program. Most of the famous artists or singers of Limbu community are participating for these programs.
It will be continue for 15 days from 10th of this Kartik month in different places of Limbuwan. The main aim of organizing this program is for the encouragement of Limbu ethnic peoples for Limbuwan Ethinic autonomy. This kind of musical advocacy program is being held in Whole Limbuwan for the first time.
KIRAT YAKTHUNG CHUMLUNG
INTRODUCTION
Kirat Yakthung Chumlung (KYC) is non-partisan and non-profit making Limbu indigenous peoples organization established in 1989. KYC is a common and representative organization of Limbu indigenous peoples of Nepal. It was duly registered with the government in 1990 and affiliated with the Social Welfare Council in 1994. Since its inception, it is dedicated to the promotion and preservation of Limbu language and culture; the upliftment of socio-economic and educational condition of Limbus; the consolidation communal harmony among various communities; and the protection and promotion of human rights and indigenous peoples rights. KYC’s activities are mainly concentrated in nine districts of Eastern part of Nepal historically known and currently proclaimed as autonomous territory ‘Limbuwan’ and in Kathmandu, Lalitpur and Bhaktapur districts.
The KYC has been working to protect and promote Indigenous peoples' rights along with other indigenous peoples' organization of Nepal since its establishment. It is one of the founder organizations of Nepal's indigenous peoples' national network, Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) established in 1990. It has been actively participating in the work of NEFIN for ensuring the rights of indigenous peoples in Nepal.
OBJECTIVE
1. To undertake various activities for the upliftment of the Limbus, their language include Kirat-Sirijonga script, literature, religion and culture.
2. To conduct research on subjects related to Limbus and promote awareness among them.
3. To organize various activities of economic development in Limbuwan to improve the living standard of local people.
4. To make the Limbus, as well as other ethnic groups of Limbuwan, aware of the constitution of Nepal, their constitutional rights and the prevalent laws of Nepal.
5. To conduct effective programs to curb the destruction of the environments and ecosystem.
6. To undertake activities for the achievement of Limbuwan autonomy under the federal system to ensure country's national integrity and sovereignty as well as sustainable development by promoting communal harmony among different ethnic groups and communities.
7. To conduct awareness programs against drug abuse and provide treatment and rehabilitation facilities for drug addicts.
8. To plan and carry out appropriate programs in order to wipe out superstition and ignorance of people about health problems in rural areas. Also, to encourage them to make best use of available and possible means and measures in the field of (for) the primary health care.
9. To increase mass awareness among the people to stay away from AIDS and other fatal diseases. Also, to make them aware of safety measures and precautions against such diseases.
10.To work for human rights, indigenous rights and women rights and child rights.
11. To carry out campaign to improve educational status of the Limbus
CORE VALUES
1. Self-esteem, self-respect and dignity
2. Mutual respect
3. Meaningful participation, transparency and institutionalization
4. Equity and Equality
5. Common ownership and responsibility
6. Consensus building
7. Mutual cooperation and strong belief in unity
PROGRAMS
1. Advocacy and Lobbying
2. Formal and Non-formal Education through Limbu language
3. Treatment and Rehabilitation for drug addicts
4. Saving and Credit Program
5. Establishment of 'Chumlung Him' (Community Hall)
6. Organizational and Institutional Development of KYC
7. Cultural Programs
8. Celebrating Birthdays of Limbu National Personalities
9. Chumlung Awards
10. Chumlung Day Celebration.
11. Development of Library:
12. Services:
13. Youth Co-operation Program
PUBLICATION
1. Tanchhoppa:
2. Chumlung Bulletin:
3. Hukwa:
4. Sumhatlung:
5. Annual Report:
6. Chumlung Calendar:
7. Pocket Calendar: It is a small sized calendar.
8. Pamphlets and flayers:
The KYC has been working to protect and promote Indigenous peoples' rights along with other indigenous peoples' organization of Nepal since its establishment. It is one of the founder organizations of Nepal's indigenous peoples' national network, Nepal Federation of Indigenous Nationalities (NEFIN) established in 1990. It has been actively participating in the work of NEFIN for ensuring the rights of indigenous peoples in Nepal.
OBJECTIVE
1. To undertake various activities for the upliftment of the Limbus, their language include Kirat-Sirijonga script, literature, religion and culture.
2. To conduct research on subjects related to Limbus and promote awareness among them.
3. To organize various activities of economic development in Limbuwan to improve the living standard of local people.
4. To make the Limbus, as well as other ethnic groups of Limbuwan, aware of the constitution of Nepal, their constitutional rights and the prevalent laws of Nepal.
5. To conduct effective programs to curb the destruction of the environments and ecosystem.
6. To undertake activities for the achievement of Limbuwan autonomy under the federal system to ensure country's national integrity and sovereignty as well as sustainable development by promoting communal harmony among different ethnic groups and communities.
7. To conduct awareness programs against drug abuse and provide treatment and rehabilitation facilities for drug addicts.
8. To plan and carry out appropriate programs in order to wipe out superstition and ignorance of people about health problems in rural areas. Also, to encourage them to make best use of available and possible means and measures in the field of (for) the primary health care.
9. To increase mass awareness among the people to stay away from AIDS and other fatal diseases. Also, to make them aware of safety measures and precautions against such diseases.
10.To work for human rights, indigenous rights and women rights and child rights.
11. To carry out campaign to improve educational status of the Limbus
CORE VALUES
1. Self-esteem, self-respect and dignity
2. Mutual respect
3. Meaningful participation, transparency and institutionalization
4. Equity and Equality
5. Common ownership and responsibility
6. Consensus building
7. Mutual cooperation and strong belief in unity
PROGRAMS
1. Advocacy and Lobbying
2. Formal and Non-formal Education through Limbu language
3. Treatment and Rehabilitation for drug addicts
4. Saving and Credit Program
5. Establishment of 'Chumlung Him' (Community Hall)
6. Organizational and Institutional Development of KYC
7. Cultural Programs
8. Celebrating Birthdays of Limbu National Personalities
9. Chumlung Awards
10. Chumlung Day Celebration.
11. Development of Library:
12. Services:
13. Youth Co-operation Program
PUBLICATION
1. Tanchhoppa:
2. Chumlung Bulletin:
3. Hukwa:
4. Sumhatlung:
5. Annual Report:
6. Chumlung Calendar:
7. Pocket Calendar: It is a small sized calendar.
8. Pamphlets and flayers:
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